Coniunctiōnēs · Interiectiōnēs · Verba Compōnenda
A conjunction (coniūnctiō) is an indeclinable word linking two units of equal or unequal grammatical rank. The Latin name coniūnctiō = "joining together" reflects the basic function: making two clauses, phrases, or words into a syntactic whole. Conjunctions are among the most frequent words in any Latin text — Caesar's et is the second-most-common word after esse.
Two great classes:
(1) Coordinate conjunctions (cōpulātīvae or coniūnctiōnēs cōpulantēs) connect units of equal rank — two nouns, two clauses, two sentences. They include the most familiar particles: et, atque, ac, -que, sed, autem, nam, enim, ergō, igitur, itaque, aut, vel, sīve.
(2) Subordinate conjunctions (subōrdinātīvae) attach a dependent clause to a main clause. They establish a logical or temporal relation between the dependent and the main clause: time, cause, condition, purpose, concession, comparison, etc. Examples: cum, ut, nē, sī, nisi, dum, donec, postquam, antequam, priusquam, quia, quod, quoniam, etsī, quamquam, quamvīs, dummodo, sīcut.
The third broad type — conjunctive adverbs like itaque, igitur, tamen — straddles the boundary between adverb and conjunction; we discussed them under adverbs (§§ 239-241).
Latin conjunctions show two characteristic features:
• Postpositive position: autem, igitur, enim, vērō, quoque never start a clause; they always come second (or after the emphasized word). This is one of the most distinctive features of Latin word-order.
• Enclitic position: -que "and" attaches to the second word of the joined pair: arma virumque "arms and the man".
접속사 (coniūnctiō)는 같은 등급 또는 다른 등급의 두 단위를 잇는 불변화 어휘다. 라틴어 이름 coniūnctiō = "함께 잇기"는 기본 기능을 반영: 두 절·구·단어를 통사적 전체로 만든다. 어떤 라틴어 텍스트에서도 가장 빈번한 단어에 속한다 — 카이사르의 et는 esse 다음으로 두 번째로 흔하다.
두 큰 부류:
(1) 등위 접속사 (cōpulātīvae · coniūnctiōnēs cōpulantēs)는 같은 등급의 단위 — 명사 둘·절 둘·문장 둘 — 을 잇는다. 가장 친숙한 소사들: et, atque, ac, -que, sed, autem, nam, enim, ergō, igitur, itaque, aut, vel, sīve.
(2) 종속 접속사 (subōrdinātīvae)는 종속절을 주절에 붙인다. 종속절과 주절 사이에 시간·원인·조건·목적·양보·비교 등 논리적·시간적 관계를 확립한다. 예: cum, ut, nē, sī, nisi, dum, donec, postquam, antequam, priusquam, quia, quod, quoniam, etsī, quamquam, quamvīs, dummodo, sīcut.
세 번째 폭넓은 유형 — 연결 부사 itaque, igitur, tamen — 은 부사와 접속사의 경계에 걸쳐 있다; 부사 아래에서 다뤘다 (§§ 239-241).
라틴어 접속사는 두 특징적 면을 보인다:
• 후치 위치: autem, igitur, enim, vērō, quoque는 절을 시작하지 않고 항상 두 번째 (또는 강조된 단어 뒤)에 옴. 라틴어 어순의 가장 두드러진 특징 중 하나.
• 후접 위치: -que(그리고)는 잇는 쌍의 둘째 단어에 붙음: arma virumque(무기와 인간을).
| Function | Latin | Notes / Korean |
|---|---|---|
| Conjunctive (and) | et, atque / ac, -que (enclitic), etiam (also), quoque (postpos., too), īnsuper (moreover), praetereā (besides) | 그리고·또한 / et = neutral; atque/ac = "and indeed"; -que = close coordination |
| Disjunctive (or) | aut, vel, -ve (enclitic), sīve / seu | 또는 / aut = exclusive ("either ... or, not both"); vel = inclusive ("or, possibly") |
| Adversative (but) | sed, autem (postpos.), vērum, at, atquī, tamen (conjunctive adv.), cēterum | 그러나·도리어 / sed = direct contrast; autem = mild "however"; at = strong "but" |
| Causal · Explanatory (for) | nam, namque, enim (postpos.), etenim | 왜냐하면 (등위적·문장 도입) / nam = sentence-initial; enim = postpositive |
| Illative (therefore) | itaque, igitur (postpos.), ergō, ideō, proinde | 그러므로·따라서 / itaque = "and so"; igitur = "therefore" |
| Correlative pairs | et ... et "both ... and"; aut ... aut "either ... or"; vel ... vel "either ... or"; nec ... nec "neither ... nor"; sīve ... sīve "whether ... or"; nōn sōlum ... sed etiam "not only ... but also"; partim ... partim "partly ... partly" | 대응적 쌍 — 두 항을 평행 구조로 묶는 라틴어의 특징적 장치 |
| Function | Latin | Mood | Korean |
|---|---|---|---|
| Time — when, while | cum, ubi, ut, simulac, simulatque, postquam, posteāquam | indic./subj. | ~할 때·~한 후·~ 직후 |
| Time — until, before | dum, donec, quoad, antequam, priusquam | indic./subj. | ~까지·~ 전에 |
| Cause | quia, quod, quoniam, quandōquidem, cum (causal) | indic./subj. | ~ 때문에 |
| Concession | quamquam (+ind.), quamvīs (+subj.), etsī, etiamsī, tametsī, licet | indic./subj. | ~함에도 불구하고 |
| Condition | sī, nisī, sīn, sīve, modo, dummodo | indic./subj. | 만약 ~하면 |
| Comparison | ut, sīcut, velut, quasi, tamquam, atque/ac (after equality words) | indic./subj. | ~처럼·마치 ~인 듯 |
| Purpose / Final | ut, nē, quō (+comparative) | SUBJ. only | ~하기 위해 |
| Result / Consecutive | ut (positive), ut nōn (negative) | SUBJ. only | ~할 정도로 |
| Indir. question | any interrog. word: quis, quid, ubi, quandō, cūr, num | SUBJ. only | (간접 의문) |
| Fearing-clauses | nē ("that ... will" — pos.); ut or nē nōn ("that ... not") | SUBJ. only | ~ 일까봐·~ 안 할까봐 |
| Preventing / refusing | nē, quōminus, quīn (after neg.) | SUBJ. only | ~하지 못하게 |
The detailed treatment of moods governed by subordinate conjunctions belongs to Pars II Syntaxis (Lectiō XXIV onward). Here the registered table shows the broad lay of the land. Key takeaways for reading:
• Some conjunctions require the subjunctive: purpose (ut/nē), result (ut), indirect question, indirect command, fearing, preventing, anticipation.
• Some require the indicative: when expressing simple facts in temporal, causal, concessive clauses.
• Many allow either mood, with subtle distinctions: cum (temporal indic. vs. circumstantial subj.); quod (factual cause indic. vs. reported cause subj.); quamquam (factual concession indic.) vs quamvīs (hypothetical concession subj.).
The detailed mood-rules are crucial for accurate reading and writing of Latin; they are treated systematically in Pars II.
종속 접속사가 지배하는 법(法)의 세세한 처리는 Pars II 통사론(Lectiō XXIV 이후) 소관이다. 여기서 등록된 표는 큰 그림을 보여 준다. 독해의 핵심 요점:
• 일부 접속사는 접속법을 요구한다: 목적(ut/nē)·결과(ut)·간접의문·간접명령·우려·방해·예기.
• 일부는 직설법을 요구한다: 시간·원인·양보 절에서 단순 사실을 표현할 때.
• 다수는 두 법 모두 허용하며 미묘한 차이가 있다: cum(시간 직설 vs. 상황 접속); quod(사실 원인 직설 vs. 보고된 원인 접속); quamquam(사실 양보 직설) vs quamvīs(가설 양보 접속).
세세한 법 규칙이 정확한 라틴어 독해·작문에 결정적이다; Pars II에서 체계적으로 다룬다.
Interjections (interiectiōnēs) are exclamatory utterances that stand grammatically apart from the sentence. They express emotion or call attention. Interjections do not enter into syntactic relations with other parts of the sentence — they are "thrown in" (the etymology of the name).
Common forms:
• Calling attention: ō, ēn, ecce "lo!, behold!".
• Sorrow/lament: heu, eheu, vae "alas!"; ēheu "alas!" (drawn out).
• Approval/encouragement: ēia, eu, euge "well done!".
• Wonder/admiration: papae "wonderful!"; babae "amazing!".
• Mild surprise: ēhem; hem "what?".
• Oaths (mild): hercle, mehercule "by Hercules"; edepol "by Pollux"; mediusfidius "by faith"; perpol "indeed".
• Beseeching: quaesō, amābō "I beseech, please"; obsecrō "I implore".
• Pain: au, ah, eheu.
• Disgust: phy, fī.
The vocative case in direct address is often accompanied by ō: Ō Caesar!. With names of persons, ō is optional and somewhat rhetorical; with abstract or impersonal addresses, ō is more frequent: Ō patria! Ō dī immortālēs!
Some interjections were originally regular verbs or imperatives that became fossilized: cedō (an old imperative — see § 223); amābō "please" (literally "I shall love" = "I'll love (you for it)").
감탄사 (interiectiōnēs)는 문장과 문법적으로 분리된 외침어로, 감정을 표하거나 주의를 부른다. 감탄사는 문장의 다른 부분과 통사적 관계를 맺지 않는다 — "끼어 던져진" 것 (이름의 어원).
흔한 형:
• 주의 환기: ō, ēn, ecce(오라!·보라!).
• 슬픔·탄식: heu, eheu, vae(아아!); ēheu(끄트머리 늘어뜨려).
• 찬성·격려: ēia, eu, euge(잘했다!).
• 경이·찬탄: papae(멋지다!); babae(놀랍다!).
• 가벼운 놀람: ēhem; hem(뭐?).
• 가벼운 맹세: hercle, mehercule(헤르쿨레스에 맹세코); edepol(폴룩스에 맹세코); mediusfidius(신의에 맹세코); perpol(진정).
• 청유: quaesō, amābō(간청·부탁); obsecrō(빌건대).
• 고통: au, ah, eheu.
• 혐오: phy, fī.
직접 호명에서의 호격은 흔히 ō를 동반한다: Ō Caesar!. 사람 이름의 경우 ō는 선택적이며 다소 수사적이고, 추상적·비인적 호명에서는 더 자주 등장: Ō patria! Ō dī immortālēs!(오 조국! 오 불멸의 신들이여!)
일부 감탄사는 본디 정규 동사·명령형이 굳어진 것: cedō(옛 명령형 — § 223 참조); amābō(부탁한다 — 글자 그대로 "내가 사랑할 것이다" = "(그렇다면) 내가 너를 사랑하겠다").
A Latin word is built from three layers — a structure inherited from Indo-European:
(1) Root (rādīx): the irreducible kernel of meaning. Latin roots are typically Indo-European in origin and very short, often a few consonants with a vowel: can- "sing", fer- "carry", reg- "rule", am- "love", vid- "see".
(2) Stem (truncus): root + derivative element (often a suffix or theme vowel). The stem is what we recognize as the verb or noun in dictionary form, minus the personal/case ending.
(3) Ending (terminātiō): case markers for nouns, person markers for verbs, gender markers for adjectives.
Worked example: cantāvistī "you sang".
• Root can- "sing".
• Frequentative -t-: cant- "sing repeatedly" → "sing" (the iterative meaning faded).
• Theme vowel -ā-: cantā- (1st conjugation).
• Perfect marker -v-: cantāv-.
• Personal ending -istī: 2 sg. perfect active.
Result: cant-ā-v-istī "you sang".
Productive verbal prefixes (mostly former prepositions, sometimes adverbs):
• ā-/ab-/abs- (away, from): auferō "carry away", abscēdō "depart", abstineō "abstain".
• ad- (toward, to): adveniō "arrive", addō "add", adsum "be present".
• ante- (before): anteferō "prefer", antecēdō "go before".
• circum- (around): circumdō "place around", circumeō "go around".
• com-/con-/co- (with, together; intensive): cōnferō "compare", cōgnōscō "find out", complēre "fill up".
• dē- (down, off, completely): dēscendō "descend", dēpōnō "lay aside", dēligō "choose".
• dis-/dī- (apart, separately): discēdō "depart", dīrigō "direct", dīmittō "send away".
• ex-/ē- (out): exeō "go out", ēligō "choose out".
• in- (into; or negative on adjectives): ineō "enter"; incertus "uncertain", iniūstus "unjust".
• inter- (between, among): interest "is between, concerns", intervēniō "intervene".
• ob- (against, before; toward): obstō "stand against", occurrō "meet".
• per- (through; intensive "thoroughly"): perveniō "arrive", permagnus "very great".
• post- (after): postpōnō "put after", posterior "later".
• prae- (before, in front; intensive): praesum "be in charge", praeclārus "very famous".
• prō- (forth, before, in place of): prōficīscor "set out", prōvideō "foresee".
• re-/red- (back, again): redeō "return", recēdō "withdraw", respiciō "look back".
• sub- (under, secretly): sustineō "uphold", subicio "throw under".
• super- (over): supersum "survive", superveniō "arrive on top of".
• trāns-/trā- (across): trānseō "cross", trādūcō "lead across".
Prefixes often cause assimilation at the boundary: ad+ferō → afferō (ad becomes af before f); com+ponō → compōnō; in+legere → ineligere; ex+ferō → efferō; ad+grediō → aggrediō; sub+ferō → sufferō. The phonological logic is: the final consonant of the prefix changes to match the initial of the stem.
라틴어 단어는 세 층위로 짜인다 — 인도유럽조어로부터 물려받은 구조:
(1) 어근 (rādīx): 의미의 환원 불가능한 핵. 라틴어 어근은 보통 인도유럽 기원이며 매우 짧다 — 보통 자음 몇 개와 모음: can-(노래), fer-(운반), reg-(다스림), am-(사랑), vid-(봄).
(2) 어간 (truncus): 어근 + 파생 요소 (흔히 접미사 또는 주제 모음). 어간은 사전 표제어에서 동사·명사로 인식되는 부분 — 인칭·격 어미를 뺀 것.
(3) 어미 (terminātiō): 명사의 격 표지, 동사의 인칭 표지, 형용사의 성 표지.
예시: cantāvistī(네가 노래했다).
• 어근 can-(노래).
• 빈출 표지 -t-: cant-(반복 노래) → "노래"(반복 의미 약화).
• 주제 모음 -ā-: cantā-(1활용).
• 완료 표지 -v-: cantāv-.
• 인칭 어미 -istī: 2단수 완료 능동.
결과: cant-ā-v-istī(네가 노래했다).
생산적 동사 접두사(대부분 옛 전치사, 가끔 부사):
• ā-/ab-/abs-(떠나·로부터): auferō(가져가다)·abscēdō(떠나다)·abstineō(자제하다).
• ad-(향하여·로): adveniō(도착하다)·addō(더하다)·adsum(있다).
• ante-(앞에): anteferō(선호하다)·antecēdō(앞서 가다).
• circum-(둘레): circumdō(둘러놓다)·circumeō(돈다).
• com-/con-/co-(함께·강조): cōnferō(비교)·cōgnōscō(알아내다)·complēre(가득 채우다).
• dē-(아래·떼어·완전): dēscendō(내려가다)·dēpōnō(놓다)·dēligō(선택).
• dis-/dī-(분리): discēdō(떠나다)·dīrigō(향하게 하다)·dīmittō(보내다).
• ex-/ē-(밖으로): exeō(나가다)·ēligō(고르다).
• in-(안으로; 또는 형용사 부정): ineō(들어가다); incertus(불확실)·iniūstus(부당).
• inter-(사이): interest(관계되다)·intervēniō(개입하다).
• ob-(맞서·앞에): obstō(맞서다)·occurrō(만나다).
• per-(통과; 강조 "철저히"): perveniō(도달)·permagnus(매우 큰).
• post-(뒤에): postpōnō(뒤로 미루다)·posterior(뒤의).
• prae-(앞에·강조): praesum(앞서 있다)·praeclārus(매우 유명).
• prō-(앞으로·대신): prōficīscor(출발)·prōvideō(예견).
• re-/red-(다시·되돌아): redeō(돌아오다)·recēdō(물러나다)·respiciō(돌아보다).
• sub-(아래·은밀): sustineō(받들다)·subicio(아래로 던지다).
• super-(위): supersum(살아남다)·superveniō(위로 도달).
• trāns-/trā-(건너): trānseō(건너다)·trādūcō(이끌다).
접두사는 흔히 경계에서 동화를 일으킨다: ad+ferō → afferō(ad가 f 앞에서 af가 됨); com+ponō → compōnō; in+legere → ineligere; ex+ferō → efferō; ad+grediō → aggrediō; sub+ferō → sufferō. 음운 논리: 접두사의 마지막 자음이 어간 첫 자음에 일치하도록 변함.
Productive noun-forming suffixes:
(a) Agent — -tor / -trīx: vic-tor "conqueror", vic-trīx "(female) conqueror"; amā-tor "lover", amā-trīx "(female) lover"; doc-tor "teacher". The feminine in -trīx is a productive innovation.
(b) Abstract noun — -tūs / -tās: vir-tūs "virtue, manliness", liber-tās "freedom", aequi-tās "equity, fairness", fīrmi-tās "firmness", maies-tās "majesty".
(c) Action / Result noun — -iō / -tiō: nā-tiō "nation, birth", ratiō "calculation, reason", ōrātiō "speech", ōpīniō "opinion", perfectiō "completion".
(d) Instrument — -mentum: monu-mentum "monument", ōrnā-mentum "ornament", argū-mentum "argument", īnstrū-mentum "tool".
(e) Occupation / Place — -ārius (often -ari- as adj.): tabellārius "letter-carrier", argentārius "silversmith", aerārium "treasury".
(f) State — -tūdō: magni-tūdō "greatness", multi-tūdō "multitude", solli-tūdō "loneliness".
(g) Diminutives — -ulus, -culus, -ellus: libellus "little book" (← liber), oppidulum "little town", fīliolus "darling son", amīcula "little (female) friend".
Productive adjective-forming suffixes:
• -ālis (pertaining to): nāvālis "naval", sociālis "social".
• -ārius (related to): litterārius "literary", annārius "yearly".
• -ōsus (full of): cūriōsus "curious", fāmōsus "famous", onerōsus "burdensome".
• -bilis (capable of being): amābilis "lovable", incrēdibilis "incredible", memorābilis "memorable".
• -ilis (capable of): facilis "easy", fragilis "fragile", civīlis "civil".
• -īnus (made of, kind of): marīnus "marine", caprīnus "of a goat".
• -cundus (inclined to): verēcundus "modest", īrācundus "irascible", iūcundus "pleasant".
• -ius: regius "royal", patrius "fatherly".
Compound word formation: Latin compounds two stems with a connecting -i-:
• magnanimus "great-souled" (= magnus + animus).
• quadrupēs, -edis "four-footed" (= quattuor + pēs).
• longē-vus "long-lived" (= longus + aevum).
• parri-cīda "parricide" (= parēns + caedere).
• agri-cola "farmer" (= ager + colere).
• nāvi-gātor "navigator" (= nāvis + agere).
★ END OF PARS I. The system of forms — phonology, declension, conjugation, particles, word formation — is now complete. Pars II (Syntaxis) treats the use of these forms in sentences: concord, case usage, mood, tense sequence, indirect discourse, and prosody.
Beginning with Lectiō XXIV, we leave the morphological foundation behind and engage Latin's syntactic genius. The forms we have learned will be deployed in sentences of increasing structural complexity, culminating in the elaborate periodic constructions of Cicero, the compressed narration of Caesar and Tacitus, and the verse of Vergil and Horace.
생산적 명사 형성 접미사:
(가) 행위자 — -tor / -trīx: vic-tor(정복자)·vic-trīx((여) 정복자); amā-tor(연인)·amā-trīx((여) 연인); doc-tor(선생). -trīx 여성형은 생산적 혁신.
(나) 추상 명사 — -tūs / -tās: vir-tūs(덕·남자다움)·liber-tās(자유)·aequi-tās(평등·공정)·fīrmi-tās(단단함)·maies-tās(위엄).
(다) 행위·결과 명사 — -iō / -tiō: nā-tiō(민족·출생)·ratiō(계산·이성)·ōrātiō(연설)·ōpīniō(의견)·perfectiō(완성).
(라) 도구 — -mentum: monu-mentum(기념물)·ōrnā-mentum(장식)·argū-mentum(논거)·īnstrū-mentum(도구).
(마) 직업·장소 — -ārius(흔히 -ari- 형용사로): tabellārius(편지 운반자)·argentārius(은세공인)·aerārium(국고).
(바) 상태 — -tūdō: magni-tūdō(크기)·multi-tūdō(군중)·solli-tūdō(고독).
(사) 축소형 — -ulus, -culus, -ellus: libellus(작은 책 — liber)·oppidulum(작은 마을)·fīliolus(귀여운 아들)·amīcula(작은 (여) 친구).
생산적 형용사 형성 접미사:
• -ālis(관계): nāvālis(해군의)·sociālis(사회의).
• -ārius(관련): litterārius(문학의)·annārius(연간의).
• -ōsus(가득한): cūriōsus(호기심 많은)·fāmōsus(유명한)·onerōsus(부담스러운).
• -bilis(~될 수 있는): amābilis(사랑스러운)·incrēdibilis(믿기 어려운)·memorābilis(기억할 만한).
• -ilis(~ 가능한): facilis(쉬운)·fragilis(약한)·civīlis(시민의).
• -īnus(~로 만든·~ 종류): marīnus(바다의)·caprīnus(염소의).
• -cundus(~ 경향): verēcundus(겸손한)·īrācundus(분노 잘하는)·iūcundus(즐거운).
• -ius: regius(왕의)·patrius(아버지의).
합성어 형성: 라틴어는 두 어간을 연결 -i-로 합성한다:
• magnanimus(큰 영혼의)(= magnus + animus).
• quadrupēs, -edis(네 발의)(= quattuor + pēs).
• longē-vus(오래 산)(= longus + aevum).
• parri-cīda(아비살해자)(= parēns + caedere).
• agri-cola(농부)(= ager + colere).
• nāvi-gātor(항해자)(= nāvis + agere).
★ Pars I 마침. 형의 체계 — 음운·곡용·활용·소사·어형성 — 이 이제 완성되었다. Pars II(Syntaxis)는 이 형들의 문장 안에서의 사용을 다룬다: 일치·격 용법·법·시제 일치·간접 화법·운율.
Lectiō XXIV에서 시작하여 형태론적 기초를 뒤로하고 라틴어의 통사적 천재성에 합류한다. 우리가 배운 형들은 점점 더 구조적으로 복잡한 문장에 배치되어, 키케로의 정교한 시기적(periodic) 구문, 카이사르와 타키투스의 압축된 서사, 베르길리우스와 호라티우스의 시에서 정점을 이룬다.