Comparātiō Adiectīvōrum

Latin adjectives, like English ones, have three degrees of comparison:

(1) Positive (gradus positīvus) — the simple, unmarked form: longus "long", fortis "brave", cārus "dear".

(2) Comparative (gradus comparātīvus) — expressing a higher degree relative to a standard. Translations vary by context:
• "X-er than" (comparative comparison): longior quam "longer than".
• "rather X" or "somewhat X" (without comparison): longior "rather long".
• "too X" (excess): longior "too long" (depending on context).

(3) Superlative (gradus superlātīvus) — the highest degree. Translations:
• "most X" or "X-est" (relative superlative): longissimus "the longest".
• "very X" (absolute superlative): longissimus "very long".
• "extremely X" or "exceedingly X".

The dual translation possibilities — relative vs. absolute superlative, and the three nuances of the comparative — are crucial for accurate reading. Context determines which sense applies. Caesar prudentior fuit can be "Caesar was rather prudent" (somewhat) or "Caesar was more prudent" (than someone implied).

Latin's comparison system is largely regular: most adjectives form comparative and superlative by predictable suffixes added to the stem. A small set of high-frequency adjectives is irregular (suppletive), with comparative and superlative coming from different roots — parallel to English "good, better, best" (3 different stems).

The regular pattern:

Comparative: stem + -ior (m./f.) and -ius (n.).
Superlative: stem + -issimus, -a, -um.

The stem is found by dropping the genitive ending of the positive:
• longus, longī → stem long- → longior, longius; longissimus.
• fortis, fortis → stem fort- → fortior, fortius; fortissimus.
• audāx, audācis → stem audāc- → audācior, audācius; audācissimus.
• fēlīx, fēlīcis → stem fēlīc- → fēlīcior; fēlīcissimus.
• brevis, brevis → stem brev- → brevior; brevissimus.

The comparative declines as a 3rd-decl. consonant-stem (gen. -iōris, abl. sg. -e, n. pl. -a, gen. pl. -um); the superlative as a 1·2-decl. adjective like bonus, -a, -um.

The pattern is highly productive — virtually any Latin adjective with a positive form can take these comparative and superlative endings, except for those that resist (treated below).

Adjectives whose nominative singular masculine ends in -er form the superlative by adding -rimus to that nominative form. The result is a doubled-r superlative: -errimus (preserving e) or simply -rimus (after the e-dropping pattern):

From 1·2-decl. -er adjectives:
• pulcher → pulcherrimus (pulcher pattern, e dropped).
• līber → līberrimus (miser pattern, e preserved).
• miser → miserrimus.
• integer → integerrimus.
• aeger → aegerrimus.
• sacer → sacerrimus.

From 3-decl. -er adjectives:
• ācer → ācerrimus.
• celer → celerrimus.
• volucer → volucerrimus.

The comparative is formed regularly (with -ior): pulchrior, celerior, ācrior, līberior, etc. So the irregularity is only in the superlative.

Why this pattern? Historically, the -er suffix was associated with old comparative-like forms, and the -rimus attachment reflects a phonological assimilation. The doubled-r is preserved through long Latin tradition.

Six adjectives ending in -ilis form the superlative in -limus (instead of the expected -issimus):

• facilis (easy) → facilior → facillimus.
• difficilis (difficult) → difficilior → difficillimus.
• similis (similar) → similior → simillimus.
• dissimilis (dissimilar) → dissimilior → dissimillimus.
• gracilis (slender) → gracilior → gracillimus.
• humilis (low, humble) → humilior → humillimus.

The phonology: the l of the stem doubles before the -imus suffix; the -i- in -ilis is absorbed.

All other adjectives in -ilis form the superlative regularly with -issimus: ūtilis → ūtilissimus; amābilis → amābilissimus; nōbilis → nōbilissimus; memorābilis → memorābilissimus; incrēdibilis → incrēdibilissimus.

The six special -limus adjectives are common — facilis and similis appear constantly. Memorize them as a group; they are predictable once known.

Adjectives in -eus, -ius, -uus (i.e., with a vowel directly before the ending), when not contracted, form their comparison periphrastically using the adverbs magis "more" and maximē "most":

• idōneus (suitable) → magis idōneus "more suitable" → maximē idōneus "most suitable".
• arduus (steep) → magis arduus → maximē arduus.
• egregius (excellent) → magis egregius → maximē egregius.
• pius (dutiful) → magis pius → maximē pius.
• necessārius (necessary) → magis necessārius → maximē necessārius.

The reason: a synthetic comparative *idōnior (with two adjacent vowels -iō-ior) would be phonologically awkward and was avoided.

Note: a few -eus adjectives do have synthetic comparatives, especially older ones: industrius → industrior (rare); poets sometimes coin tenuior from tenuis.

The periphrastic construction is also available for any other adjective when emphasis on degree is desired: magis sapiēns quam fortis "more wise than brave" — distinguishing two qualities. This use of magis ... quam ... emphasizes the relative nature of the comparison.

★ Note: comparative is a consonant-stem, not an i-stem! Therefore:

• Genitive plural in -um (NOT -ium).
• Neuter plural nominative/accusative in -a (NOT -ia).
• Ablative singular in -e (NOT -ī).

This distinguishes the comparative from regular 3rd-decl. i-stem adjectives like fortis (gen. pl. fortium, n. pl. fortia, abl. sg. fortī). The comparative descends from an old consonantal pattern and resists the i-stem encroachment.

The masculine and feminine are identical throughout; only the neuter differs in the nominative and accusative singular (altius) and plural (altiōra).

The superlative, by contrast, is a regular 1·2-decl. adjective: altissimus, -a, -um declines exactly like bonus. This is why the superlative is morphologically simpler than the comparative.

Some adjectives lack a positive, having only comparative and superlative (or only some of these):

• prior, prius (former) → prīmus (first); no positive — derived from preposition prae.
• citerior (nearer, on this side) → citimus.
• interior (inner) → intimus.
• propior (nearer) → proximus.
• ulterior (farther) → ultimus.

Others lack the comparative or superlative: e.g., egēnus "needy" has no comparative (rare); nōvus "new" has rare comparative recentior (but nōvior exists in late Latin); aureus "golden" has no comparison (it's an absolute property).

The standard of comparison after a comparative is expressed by:

(a) Ablative of comparison: bare ablative, equivalent to "than": frāter maior mē "a brother greater than I".
(b) quam + same case as the first member: frāter maior quam ego. The most common form in elaborate prose; the ablative is more compact (poetry, proverbs).

The superlative may be intensified by quam: quam fortissimus "as brave as possible". With quam+possum: quam celerrimē potest "as quickly as he can".

Quanto ... tanto ...: a correlative pattern: quantō plūs ... tantō minus "the more ... the less"; quantō difficilius ... tantō praeclārius "the more difficult, the more glorious".

Multō, paulō (degree of difference): multō melior "much better"; paulō prius "a little earlier".